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Dependency grammar
Dependency grammar (DG) is a class of modern syntactic theories that are all based on the dependency relation (as opposed to the constituency relation) and that can be traced back primarily to the work of Lucien Tesnière. Dependency is the notion that linguistic units, e.g. words, are connected to each other by directed links. The (finite) verb is taken to be the structural center of clause structure. All other syntactic units (words) are either directly or indirectly connected to the verb in terms of the directed links, which are called ''dependencies''. DGs are distinct from phrase structure grammars (constituency grammars), since DGs lack phrasal nodes - although they acknowledge phrases. Structure is determined by the relation between a word (a head) and its dependents. Dependency structures are flatter than constituency structures in part because they lack a finite verb phrase constituent, and they are thus well suited for the analysis of languages with free word order, such as Czech, Turkish, and Warlpiri.
==History==
The notion of dependencies between grammatical units has existed since the earliest recorded grammars, e.g. Pāṇini, and the dependency concept therefore arguably predates the constituency notion by many centuries.〔Concerning the history of the dependency concept, see Percival (1990).〕 Ibn Maḍāʾ, a 12th-century linguist from Córdoba, Andalusia, may have been the first grammarian to use the term ''dependency'' in the grammatical sense that we use it today. In early modern times, the dependency concept seems to have coexisted side by side with the constituency concept, the latter having entered Latin, French, English and other grammars from the widespread study of term logic of antiquity.〔Concerning the influence of term logic on the theory of grammar, see Percival (1976).〕 Dependency is also concretely present in the works of Sámuel Brassai (1800-1897), a Hungarian linguist, and of Heimann Hariton Tiktin (1850-1936), a Romanian linguist.〔Concerning dependency in the works of Brassai, see Imrényi (2013), and concerning dependency in the works of Tiktin, see Coseriu (1980).〕
Modern dependency grammars, however, begin primarily with the work of Lucien Tesnière. Tesnière was a Frenchman, a polyglot, and a professor of linguistics at the universities in Strasbourg and Montpellier. His major work ''Éléments de syntaxe structurale'' was published posthumously in 1959 – he died in 1954. The basic approach to syntax he developed seems to have been seized upon independently by others in the 1960s〔Concerning early dependency grammars that may have developed independently of Tesnière's work, see for instance Hays (1960), Gaifman (1965), and Robinson (1970).〕 and a number of other dependency-based grammars have gained prominence since those early works.〔Some prominent dependency grammars that were well established by the 1980s are from Hudson (1984), Sgall, Hajičová et Panevova (1986), Mel’čuk (1988), and Starosta (1988).〕 DG has generated a lot of interest in Germany〔Some prominent dependency grammars from the German schools are from Heringer (1996), Engel (1994), Eroms (2000), and Ágel et al. (2003/6) is a massive two volume collection of essays on dependency and valence grammars from more than 100 authors.〕 in both theoretical syntax and language pedagogy. In recent years, the great development surrounding dependency-based theories has come from computational linguistics and is due, in part, to the influential work that David Hays did in machine translation at the RAND Corporation in the 1950s and 1960s. Dependency-based systems are increasingly being used to parse natural language and generate tree banks. Interest in dependency grammar is growing at present, international conferences on dependency linguistics being a relatively recent development ((Depling 2011 ), (Depling 2013 ), (Depling 2015 )).
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